A Room of Junko's Own

Uneasy Men in the Land of Oz

Published as one of the articles in Children's Literature and the Fin De Siecle (Praeger Press, 2003)

Yoshida, Junko

　　　　L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, which was later published under the new title of The Wizard of Oz, has been widely read since its first publication in 1900; the book's success prompted the culture industry to produce its various adaptations including the MGM film of 1939, The Wizard of Oz TV series in the 1950s, both the Broadway musical version and the film's version, The Wiz , in the 1970s, Philip Farmer's novel Barnstormer in Oz published in 1982, and Jeff Ryman's novel Was published in 1992.

Neil Earle, in his study of The Wizard of Oz as popular culture, says, "[T]he decades of the 1930s and 1970s, both periods when the nation's economic arrangements were out of joint, were periods when Baum's optimistic egalitarianism was reworked and represented."*1 It is indeed interesting that notable adaptations appeared not only during the periods of economic recessions but also during the period of changing cultural and social environments.

Jack Zipes maintains, "Both film and book formed a utopian constellation, a reference point, one that fortunately has not gone away and compels us to return time and again to determine our national character and identity."*2 In other words, the land of Oz in each adaptation reflected authors' and artists' hopes and despair as well as those of the audience who accepted these adaptations. My concern in this paper, therefore, is to place Baum's The Wizard of Oz in the social and cultural context of America, and read it as a "reference point" of American culture and society.

　　　　Although The Wizard of Oz has been variously interpreted by many critics, most interpretations have focused on Dorothy's journey to find her way back home. They tend to see her as an American female-hero, and her journey as a representative quest for national identity. For example, Henry Littlefield, reading The Wizard of Oz as a symbolic allegory, says, "Dorothy is Baum's Miss Everyman. She is one of us, levelheaded and human, and she has a real problem."*3

Brian Attebery, compares Dorothy with Lewis Carroll's Alice and with Irving's Rip Van Winkle and concludes that "Dorothy is aggressively, triumphantly American." Dorothy is the "explorer, the wanderer, who penetrates ever wilder regions of the world . . ."*4

Madonna Kolbenschlag, in her feminist reading of the story, regards Dorothy as "the classic archetype of the spiritual orphan,"*5 the orphan who "is a metaphor for our deepest, most fundamental reality: experiences of attachment and abandonment, of expectation and deprivation, of loss and failure and of loneliness."*6

Lastly, focusing on the psychological trajectory of Dorothy and reading it in a psychohistorical fashion, Jerry Griswold says, "The Land of Oz is the Kingdom Without: an imaginative and extravagant version of America. But it is also and simultaneously the Kingdom Within: Dorothy's own circumstances reimagined at large, an extrapolation of her own oedipal or family problems."*7

　　　　Such interpretations focus on Dorothy's journey, not on the journey of the male characters, i.e., the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodman, and the Cowardly Lion. Unlike Dorothy's journey, which was accidentally started by a tornado, the males' journey seems to have been self-motivated. The male characters think they lack essential elements in their personalities, and this lack makes them less than whole. They have compulsive desires to become whole and think they have to meet the Wizard of Oz to ask him for a brain, a heart, and courage, respectively. Later, these qualities eventually help them become rulers.

Meanwhile Dorothy's quest is closely related to the notion of female sphere, home. Thus, the motivations of their journeys are obviously based on gender. Although Kolbenschlag says that the three male companions embody aspects of Dorothy's own autonomy that she must develop,*8 their desires to seek these aspects should not be mixed-up with Dorothy's desire for home.

　　　　 What I have said so far indicates that there are two types of journey in the story. Dorothy's journey starts at the farm house in Kansas and ends at the same place, whereas the males' journey starts at the time each of them encounters Dorothy, and ends when each of them successfully becomes a ruler in society. Although the two different types are often confusingly treated as though they were the same journey, we should discuss them separately. It would be worthwhile to explore this misunderstanding that the book only contains a single journey.

　　　　 In the study of Baum's The Wizard of Oz, most critics refer to the film version of The Wizard of Oz produced in 1939. Therefore Dorothy's motivation to leave Kansas in the film is worth examination. It is hinted that Dorothy "escapes" from Kansas in search of the dream land "over the rainbow." Dorothy is threatened by Miss Gulch, a wealthy woman in the neighborhood, who is trying to kill Dorothy's pet dog, Toto.

When Dorothy appeals to Aunt Em about her dog, the aunt replies, "[Y]ou always get yourself into a fret about nothing. . . . find yourself a place where you won't get in any trouble!"*9 Then Dorothy says to herself, "Someplace where there isn't any trouble . . . do you suppose there is such a place, Toto? . . . There must be. It's not a place you can get to by a boat or a train. It's far, far away. Behind the moon. Beyond the rain. . ."10 And then she begins to sing that famous song, "0ver the Rainbow."

　　Somewhere, over the rainbow, way up high,
　　There's a land that I heard of once in a lullaby.
　　Somewhere, over the rainbow, skies are blue,
　　And the dreams that you dare to dream really do come true.

　　Someday I'll wish upon a star
　　And wake up where the clouds are far behind me,
　　Where troubles melt like lemon drops,
　　Away above the chimney tops
　　That's where you'll find me.

　　Somewhere over the rainbow, bluebirds fly,
　　Birds fly over the rainbow,
　　Why then, oh why can't I?*11

　　　　 Salman Rushdie in his interpretation of this scene, says, "What she expresses here, what she embodies with the purity of an archetype, is the human dream of leaving, a dream at least as powerful as its countervailing dream of roots."*12 This song eloquently explains her motivation to escape from her Kansas home. It is no wonder that the tornado which has affinity to her surname, Gale, helps her dream of leaving come true. Furthermore the latest technology of Technicolor used in this film heightens the effect of exodus from the greyness of Kansas and entering into the colorfulness of Oz. In this way, the film The Wizard of Oz represents many critics' assumption that Dorothy "escapes" from Kansas. However, a careful reading of Baum's book will show that there is no inevitability for Dorothy to escape from her home in Kansas.

　　　　 In the opening two pages of Baum's book there are descriptions of the greyness of the Kansas prairies, and ten repetitions of "grey" are used. Eight of these depict the dry and bleak environment on the prairie and the exhausted and desolate expression of Dorothy's aunt and uncle. Only twice is the word "grey" used in relation to Dorothy and Toto, but to describe that they are not grey.

　　　　It was Toto that made Dorothy laugh, and saved her from growing grey as her other surroundings. Toto was not grey; he was a little black dog, with long silky hair and small black eyes that twinkled merrily on either side of his funny, wee nose. (emphasis added) *13

　　　　It is her aunt and uncle who are exhausted with the greyness and the hardships of pioneer life. There is no mention of Dorothy being actually overwhelmed by the greyness. On the contrary, Dorothy is portrayed as a pleasant and innocent girl whose cheerfulness is protected by her pet, Toto. She represents happiness, innocence, and hope which Aunt Em and Uncle Henry have lost in the course of their pioneer lives.

　　　　After hearing Dorothy's story about Kansas, the Scarecrow wonders why she wishes to leave the beautiful land of Oz and go back to the dry, grey place like Kansas. Dorothy answers, "No matter how dreary and grey our homes are, we people of flesh and blood would rather live there than in any other country, be it ever so beautiful. There is no place like home."*14 Here it is obvious that she did not escape from Kansas.

　　　　In addition, Dorothy's journey does not have the motivation of the universal hero's journey as defined by Joseph Campbell. He says, "The usual hero adventure begins with someone from whom something has been taken, or who feels there's something lacking in the normal experiences available or permitted to the members of his society."*15 And this is exactly the case with the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodman, and the Cowardly Lion. They feel they must become whole.

　　　　In the case of Dorothy, however, her discretion and practical way of thinking are distinctive, and her unique personality is clearly portrayed in the scene where she and the house are blown away by the cyclone.

　　　. . . Dorothy sat quite still on the floor and waited to see what would happen. . . . but as the
　　hourspassed and nothing terrible happened, she stopped worrying and resolved to wait calmly
　　and see what the future would bring. . . . In spite of the swaying of the house and the wailing of
　　the wind, Dorothy soon closed her eyes and fell fast asleep.*16

Thus, even in the beginning of her journey Dorothy has enough discretion to control her emotion and behavior.

　　　　Then we should wonder why Dorothy, who is innocent "like a baby in a cradle,"*17 and fearless, joyful, and thoughtful as well, has to be dispatched to the land of Oz? Most critics' answer would be that Dorothy has to travel all the way to find her own potential represented in the Silver Shoes which she takes from the Wicked Witch. At the end of Dorothy's journey, Glinda, the Good Witch of the South, says to her, "Your Silver Shoes will carry you over the desert. . . If you had known their power you could have gone back to your Aunt Em the very first day you came to this country."*18 Griswold, responding to this passage, says, ". . . Glinda points out that the girl has had the ability to return all along. . . Dorothy comes into her own and recognizes her own power."*19

　　　　 However, is it possible to call some stuff stolen from the Wicked Witch "her own power" whereas males are given elements of their personalities? Moreover, the Silver Shoes are not something Dorothy brought with her from Kansas, i.e., something that originally belongs to her. In addition to this, she cannot bring them back home because she loses them on her way home, as we can see in the following quotation: "Dorothy stood up and found she was in her stocking-feet. For the Silver Shoes had fallen off in her flight through the air, and were lost for ever in the desert."*20

　　　　All these things suggest that Dorothy's mission is to meet the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodman, the Cowardly Lion, and the Wizard of Oz. Dorothy was transported to the Land of Oz in order to encounter these males and help them solve their problems. In this sense, the central characters are male figures who make journeys in quest of their masculine identity.

　　　　Now, let us look more closely at each of their "problems." The Scarecrow is the first male companion Dorothy meets after starting to follow the yellow brick road. When she meets him, the Scarecrow has had his back stuck with a pole in a cornfield. As soon as Dorothy rescues him from the situation in which he has been stuck, he laments his lack of brain. However, she does not think he has a real problem even though she thinks him a sensible person. Therefore, Dorothy's reaction to his lament is not compassionate; she is rather unruffled:

　　"Do you think," [the Scarecrow] asked, "if I go to the Emerald City with you, that Oz would
　　give me any brains?"
　　"I cannot tell," [Dorothy] returned; "but you may come with me, if you like. If Oz will not give
　　 you any brains you will be no worse off than you are now."*21

　　　　The Scarecrow's thinking that he has no brain comes from his lack of self-confidence, which in turn is caused by his traumatic experience in the cornfield. That is, an old crow exposed his identity as a stuffed man, and then lead a great flock of crows to plunder the corn all the while making fool of the Scarecrow. He lost his confidence in himself because he thought he did not have enough brain to assume his full responsibility as a "man" to guard the cornfield against the enemies. Many critics have pointed out that the Scarecrow's experience represents that of American farmers at the turn of the century.

　　　　 Pioneer farmers toward the end of the century were undergoing a drastic change in many ways. Although the increase of homestead farmers in the Great Plains had been moderate in the ante-bellum years, the extension of the railroads across the continent, especially between 1870 and 1880, stimulated the rapid increase in population of new settlers on the frontier. Especially with the booming speculative business of buying farmland in 1880, an increasing number of people rushed to the frontier. But the Homestead Act did not take effect, and as Hamlin Garland wrote in the preface to his novel Jason Edward (1891), "The last acre of available farmland has now passed into private or corporate hands."*22 Kansas, in particular, saw excessive cultivation of farmland. Then the draught in 1887 caused serious damages to the agricultural products in west Kansas.

Furthermore, the deflation after the booming land speculation gave an additional blow to the struggling farmers. The historian Samuel Morison writes about the economy of America at the turn of the century, "Virgin prairie land, and peak prices of wheat and corn in 1881, had induced excessive railway construction . . . , and oversettlement of the arid western part of [Kansas]."*23 During four years after 1887, half of the pioneer farmers left Kansas.*24

　　　　Baum was in a position to be well-informed about practical problems of pioneer farmers. In 1888 he and his family moved into a frontier town, Aberdeen, in South Dakota Territory just before it was granted statehood. For more than a year Baum edited a weekly journal, The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer, and wrote a column under the title of "Our Land Lady." It was the paper's most popular feature, in which Mrs. Bilkins, an imaginary character, discusses current events with the residents of her boardinghouse. They pick up various topics including the draught, the Sioux tribe, railroads, and the woman's suffrage movement. Also, the newspaper itself covered other social events in Aberdeen.

　　　　The next companion on Dorothy's journey is the Tin Woodman who has been standing motionless in the woods. He has been tasting the fear of rust isolated from rest of the world for more than a year. Their first dialogue is as follows:

　　"Did you groan?" asked Dorothy.
　　"Yes," answered the tin man, "I did. I've been groaning for more than a year, and no one has
　　ever heard me before or come to help me."*25

　　　　The tin man was originally a human being, but the enchanted axe given to him by the Wicked Witch of the East caused him to lose one part of his body every time he wielded it. The lost part of his body was replaced by a tinsmith each time. His whole body has now become metallic; he is, in effect, a machine. Fearing that joints of his body might rust, he always has to bring an oil-can with him.

Strangely enough, however, rather than regretting of the loss of his human body, he feels proud of his metallic body, saying, "My body shone so brightly in the sun that I felt very proud of it and did not matter now if my axe slipped, for it could not cut me."*26 And he thinks his real problem is the loss of his heart. It is indeed ironic that he can be emotional enough to shed tears and still is obsessed with the loss of his heart, lamenting that he cannot love his sweetheart any more.

　　　　His personal history, in fact, signifies the changing image of men in the history of pioneers. Mark Gerzon says, "All kinds of men moved west: farmers and trappers, adventurers and misfits, ministers and schoolteachers, soldiers and miners. But only one type of man became a national hero, only one became a cultural archetype that would embed itself in the masculine mind. . . the Frontiersmen --Daniel Boone, Kit Carson, Wild Bill Hickock, and of course Davy Crockett -- are the stuff of boyhood dreams."*27

The Frontiersmen represent the ideal image of men who are self-reliant and courageous subjugators of the "virgin land." However, in white society at the turn of the century, this ideal manhood was no longer wholesome because the rapid industrialization and urbanization caused a change in the conception of ideal masculinity. The fact that the woodman loses parts of his body one after another because of the enchantment of the Wicked Witch reminds us that the manhood of self-reliant Frontiersmen is gradually replaced by that of "breadwinners" who, domesticated by the industrial capitalists of the East, work mechanically in order to earn their living.

During this period of industrialization when workplaces were separated from home, men were forced to identify with a different manhood that could separate their emotions from themselves in order for them to survive the competitive society, or the battle field. They could successfully survive only by hiding their human hearts behind the tin mask and pretending to be a labor machine in the "battle field" of men. It is significant that the Tin Woodman's mutilation occurs whenever he works with his axe. In this sense, his workplace, the woods, actually has turned into a battle field.

　　　　The third companion of Dorothy's journey is the Cowardly Lion who worries that he does not have enough courage to meet other animals' expectations.

　　"What makes you a coward?" asked Dorothy. . . .
　　"It's a mystery," replied the Lion. "I suppose I was born that way. All the other animals
　　in the forest naturally expect me to be brave, for the Lion is everywhere thought to be
　　the King of Beasts."*28

His worry also comes from his low self-esteem. However, it is ironic that he happens to prove his bravery by fighting one hardship after another in the course of his journey. The Lion's worry seems to represent one aspect of white men's masculinity at the turn of the century.

According to the sociologist Anthony Rotundo, the number of white-collar workers multiplied eight times between 1870 and 1910 owing to industrialization. In big cities where the number of corporations increased, a bureaucratic new order was born. Within the new order, every businessman had to submit himself to his boss. Rotundo writes, "In the nineteenth century, middle-class men had believed that a true man was a self-reliant being who would never bow to unjust authority or mere position. The new structures of work and opportunity in the marketplace did not support such a concept of manhood."*29

Moreover, with the increase of working women in the workplace, previously men's domain, Rotundo maintains "[men's] sense of manly prerogative was threatened. Women's presence made a symbolic statement to men that the world of middle-class work was no longer a male club. . . .the subjective reality for men was that their workplace was not masculine in the same sense that it had been."*30

　　　　In addition to the changes of atmosphere in their workplace, the cultural phenomena of what is called "feminization" of masculinity in the late nineteenth century should not be overlooked. Boys were educated and civilized by female caretakers based on the ideology of separate spheres, which eventually caused them to imprint on some boys female values. Rotundo argues, "The fear of womanly men became a significant cultural issue in the late nineteenth century. . . Men . . . began to sort themselves out into hardy, masculine types and gentle feminine types."*31 In other words, the masculine type and the feminine type existed even in an individual male's psychology as conflicting cultural values.

　　　　We can readily assume that Baum himself underwent a similar psychological conflict, if we pay attention to his personal history of growing up in an educated white family in the East. Baum, as a sickly and delicate boy, was not allowed to attend school, but was educated at home by private tutors. He enjoyed reading books by himself in a secret place and acted out fantasies, and played with imaginary friends. At the age of twelve, Frank enrolled in Peekskill Academy whose "goal was to develop 'true manly character,' gentlemanly conduct, and instant obedience."*32 He never agreed with the military way of thinking in training male students, and left Peekskill after two years.

　　　　The last man Dorothy is sent to is the Wizard of Oz. As Dorothy approaches the Emerald City, she obtains information concerning Oz from the people on the way. First, Oz is great and terrible, and can grant anyone's request. Second, as Dorothy was told, "Oz can take on any form he wishes. . . . But who the real Oz is, when he is in his own form, no living person can tell"*33; his identity is shrouded in mystery. The residents in the land of Oz whom Dorothy meets unanimously say, "You must see Oz." Nevertheless, when she finally visits the Wizard, she is tantalizingly granted an audience.

However, when Dorothy visits him again in order to have her request granted, she discovers that he is far from Oz the Great and Terrible, but "a common man," and "a humbug" as well. Also it is disclosed that this man has been obliged to confine himself within the palace and lead a solitary life for fear that his identity of impostor might be revealed. Oz says:

　　I am tired of being such a humbug. If I should go out of this Palace my people would soon
　　discover I am not a Wizard, and then they would be vexed with me for having deceived
　　them. So I have to stay shut up in these rooms all day, and its gets tiresome.*34

　　　　Dorothy's disclosure does, in fact, save Oz. After this incident Oz terminates his impostor's life, and goes back home to Omaha in a balloon. In this sense, Oz's imposture is closely connected with the nature of the Emerald City. He has been pretending to be the Great and Terrible Wizard, a figure larger than life, and he displayed an infinite power that is not his own so that he can maintain the illusion of "green utopia" of the city. The mandatory wearing of green glasses by the city dwellers is one strategy he uses to maintain the fiction of a green city.

However, this does not mean that Oz is completely a humbug. The city gate is actually "all studded with emeralds that glittered so in the sun that even the painted eyes of the Scarecrow [are] dazzled by their brilliancy."*35 Also it is true that "[e]veryone seemed happy and contented and prosperous."*36 Oz's self-portrait, therefore, has become contradictory: "I am Oz, the Great and Terrible."*37 "I am a humbug."*38 "I'm really a very good man, but I'm a very bad Wizard, . . ."*39 Then we should ask what element of the Emerald City causes him to have such a contradictory picture of himself.

　　　　As many critics have pointed out, the Emerald City is associated with "the White City," a nickname of the fair of 1893, the World Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago. It was timely that Baum moved into Chicago in 1891, and eventually became a reporter writing articles for The Evening Post. In those days Chicago was the next largest city to New York in population, and the symbol of economic and industrial development in the Midwest.

The historian Emily Rosenberg maintains that the Columbian Exposition was held in the first period of the promotion of the American Dream. As is awesomely demonstrated in the Edison Tower of Light erected by General Electric in the midst of the fair ground, the exhibition emphasized "technological wizardry," and the fair was filled with "a strong international spirit and . . . [a] faith in American-led progress."*40

　　　　As was shown in the various glittering exhibitions in the urban wonderland, this world fair was the landmark of the spreading American Dream. We should note that during the same period America was pursuing an expansionist policy on the international front because the American frontier had closed at home. In other words, the expansion of American territory and the country's economy heavily depended on the exploitation of ethnic, social, and cultural "others" both inside and outside the country.

In the same year, 1893, American farmers and laborers were hit by a serious economic depression. And three years before the fair the gruesome massacre of Native Americans of the Sioux tribe at Wounded Knee occured. Five years after the fair, America expanded its territories by defeating the Spanish in the Spanish-American War.

　　　　The historian Morison maintains, "Seldom has there been so successful an experiment in the now despised "colonialism" or "imperialism" as American rule in the Philippines."41 Reflecting the national consensus of anti-colonialism, the Philippines became a protectorate, not America's territory. As a result the custom law was applied to the Philippines, which means "Inhabitants of the dependencies are American nationals, not citizens of the United States unless expressly granted that status by the United States."*42 This was the "open door" policy which the historian Howard Zinn says, "was a more sophisticated approach to imperialism than the traditional empire-building of Europe."*43

　　　　As a journalist, Baum was naturally alert to both international and domestic affairs. In 1890 when U.S. army soldiers attacked Indians camped at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, and killed three hundred Sioux people including women and children, Baum was a journalist working for The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer. According to Koupal, Baum mourned the death of Sitting Bull who was a friendly Sioux leader, recalling his "proud spirit of the original owners of [the] vast prairies."

Moreover, Baum blamed the U.S. soldiers for the ineptitude that had resulted in so many causalities. Nevertheless, he did not feel pity, and wrote, "Our only safety . . . depends upon the total extermination of the Indians."*44 Koupal says, "Baum's reaction reflected the concerns of the time and place. He never expressed this view again through out his long writing career."*45 It is possible that uneasiness muffled his voice.

　　　　It is interesting to note that, during the same period when The Wizard of Oz was written, both inside and outside the country, America was assuming an exploitative and expansionist attitude toward "others" on the pretext of "civilization," just as the Wizard of Oz was exercising "deceptive and illusionary" magic over the people of the Emerald City. As the manhood of the Wizard of Oz is closely connected to his domination over the Emerald City, the "manhood" of the American empire was on display in the sparkling exhibitions of the Columbian Exposition.

How Baum felt about American civilization can be easily imagined from the words of the Wizard of Oz when he is finally identified as a humbug. The Wizard apologetically says, "I'm really a very good man; but I am a very bad Wizard, . . ."*46 Baum as a liberal Easterner still believed, or tried to believe, in the manifest destiny of America, but he must have been beginning to feel uneasy about America's masculine identity.

Notes
1. Neil Earle. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz in American Popular Culture: Uneasy in Eden. (Dyfed, Wales, UK: The Edwin Mellen P, 1993), xiv.
2. Jack Zipes. Fairy Tales as Myth, Myth as Fairy Tale. (Lexington: Kentucky UP, 1994), 122.
3. Henry Littlefield. "The Wizard of Oz: Parable on Populism," American Quarterly 16 (Spring 1964), 52.
4. Brian Attebery. The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature: From Irving to Le Guin. (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1980), 96-97.
5. Madonna Kolbenschlag. Lost in the Land of Oz: Befriending Your Inner Orphan and Heading for Home. (New York: Crossroad, 1988), 18.
6. Ibid., 9.
7. Jerry Griswold. The Audacious Kids: Coming of Age in America's Classic Children's Literature. (New York: Oxford UP, 1992), 41.
8. Kolbenschlag. Lost in the Land of Oz. 19.
9. Noel Langley et al. The Wizard of Oz: The Screenplay. (New York: Delta, 1989), 39.
10.Ibid., 39.
11.Ibid., 39.
12. Salman Rushdie. The Wizard of Oz . 1992. (London: BFI Publishing, 1993), 23.
13. L. Frank Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 1900. (London: Penguin, 1982), 10.
14. Ibid., 32.
15. Joseph Campbell. The Power of Myth. (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 152.
16. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 13.
17. Ibid., 13.
18. Ibid., 168.
19. Griswold. The Audacious Kids. 39.
20. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 171.
21. Ibid., 28.
22. Hamlin Garland. quoted in Howard Zinn. People's History of the United States: 1942 to Present. Rev. and Updated ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 276.
23. Samuel Morison. The Oxford History of the American People. (New York: Oxford UP, 1965), 789.
24. Ibid., 789-90.
25. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 38.
26. Ibid., 43.
27. Mark Gerzon. A Choice of Heroes: The Changing Faces of American Manhood. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1982), 19.
28. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 48.
29. Anthony Rotundo. American Manhood. (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 249-50.
30. Ibid., 250.
31. Ibid., 265.
32. Angela Shirley Carpenter and Jean Shirley. L. Frank Baum: Royal Historian of Oz. (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 1991), 16.
33. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 75.
34. Ibid., 137.
35. Ibid., 76-77.
36. Ibid., 81.
37. Ibid., 124.
38. Ibid., 126.
39. Ibid., 129.
40. Emily Rosenberg. Spreading the American Dream. (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), 9.
41. Morison. The Oxford History of the American People. 806.
42. Ibid., 806.
43. Zinn. People's History of the United States. 294.
44. L. Frank Baum. ed. & annotated Nancy Tystad Koupal. Our Landlady. 1890-91. (Lincoln: Nebraska UP, 1996), 147.
45. Ibid., 147.
46. Baum. The Wizard of Oz . 129.

References
Attebery, Brian. The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature: From Irving to Le Guin. Bloomington:
　　 Indiana UP, 1980.
Baum, L. Frank. 1890-91. Our Landlady. ed. & annotated Nancy Tystand Koupal. Lincoln: Nebraska UP,
　　 1996.
- - -. The Wizard of Oz . 1900, London: Penguin, 1982.
Campbell, Joseph. The Power of Myth. New York: Doubleday, 1988.
Carpenter, Shirley Angelica & Jean Shirley. L. Frank Baum: Royal Historian of Oz. Minneapolis: Lerner
　　 Publications, 1991.
Earle, Neil. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz in American Popular Culture: Uneasy in Eden. Dyfed, Wales, UK.:
　　 The Edwin Mellen P, 1993.
Gardner, Martin, and Russel B. Nye. The Wizard of Oz and Who He Was. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan
　　 State UP, 1957, rept. 1994.
Gerzon, Mark. A Choice of Heroes: The Changing Faces of American Manhood. Boston: Houghton
　　 MifflinCompany, 1982.
Griswold, Jerry. The Audacious Kids: Coming of Age in America's Classic Children's Literature. New York:
　　 Oxford UP, 1992.
Hearn, Patrick Michael. The Annotated Wizard of Oz. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1973.
Kolbenschlag, Madonna. Lost in the Land of Oz: Befriending Your Inner Orphan and Heading for Home.
　　 New York: Crossroad, 1988.
Langley, Noel. Florence Ryerson, and Edgar Allan Woolf. The Wizard of Oz: The Screenplay. New York:
　　 Delta, 1989.
Littlefield, Henry. "The Wizard of Oz: Parable on Populism," American Quarterly 16 (Spring 1964), 47-58.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Oxford History of the American People. New York: Oxford UP, 1965.
Nathanson, Paul. Over the Rainbow: The Wizard of Oz as a Secular Myth of America. New York: State U of
　　 New York P, 1991.
Rosenberg, Emily S. Spreading the American Dream. New York: Hill & Wang, 1982.
Rotundo, E. Anthony. American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era.
　　New York: Basic Books, 1993.
Rushdie, Salman. The Wizard of Oz . London: BFI Publishing, 1992.
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　　 HarperCollins, 1995.
Zipes, Jack. Fairy Tales as Myth, Myth as Fairy Tale. Lexington: Kentucky UP, 1994.

Film
The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1939.