Α. What is "Existence"
At first, following the Socratic "διαλεκτικη," we must gather all the things that we usually call "existence" together under an essential aspect. Then, we must classify them into several different domains accordingto their natures.
Well, We can generalize that all the "existence" that is given to us is what is represented and noted by our own intellect. Therefore, so long as we get conscious of them, we are demanded that we should call them "existence" whatever sorts they might be.
After that, we are to investigate about several different domains of existence according to their different natures, but in order to define which domains they belong to, as only classifying them according to their natures is not sufficient for it, we are required to investigate as far as the functions of the subject which unifies and represents existences belonging to respective domains.
Because all the existence is come out into the world as representation through the functions of the ever unifying subject※, we for the first time define clearly the domains each existence belongs to by investigating the functions as precisely as possible.
In this first chapter, we are to classify and define the domains of existence by following the functions of the unifying subject.
※This subject as intellect cannot operate independently. This will be defined as one part of the operation a "soul", that is "life" itself, has.
Β. The Unifying Subject of knowing
By the way, we must admit the following fact; we cannot follow the functions of the subject as they are. In truth, we can only suppose the functions afterward by investigating the footprints marked and noted as results of its operation. Because the ever unifying subject is never unified and represented at the same time on its unifying point. Therefor the unifying subject is destined to treat previously unified and represented its own footprints inorder to follow and grasp its own functions.
Thus the functions of intellect we are to investigate in this chapter are by no means absolute. We can say that they are mere supposition, but that we make hypotheses on the functions of it in the respective domains of existence from the footprints left behind it, and that if we are patient in studying the connection between the hypotheses and the footprints and in correcting the hypothese, we will come to hypothesize the functions as precisely as possible.
Then, let us examine into the details of the unifying subject as intellect.
First, as a part of the whole operation of "life" itself, its operation is limited to intellectual functions through which it lights up existances in the intuitive world or let them emerge in the reflective world.
Thus we must admit that the relation between the subject and the existences which are represented under the light of it is nothing but that of the face and the back, and they are not to be treated separately at all.
Next, the way of its operation is characterized by its sequentiality. The subject casts its intellectual light and makes existances come out successively. Therefore all the existence represented with the sequentiality as a content of the form of its unification have the mutual determinative relation in their sequential appearances, and which leads us to the idea of "time."
Now, as mentioned above, the very subject unifying at all times on its operating point is never represented and dose not come into the existence in the mutual determinative relation. Accordingly the connection between the ever unifying subject and the existences unified and represented in that mutual relation may be compared to that between an indefinable abyss that is supposed nothing and bubbles rising from it. And so long as the "ever unifying subject" described here is unified and comes out as a product of its reflection, it is mere "existence" as well.
Even though, however, all the existence seems to be mere bubbles rising from the abyss, we can examine them and obtain as proper knowledge as possible about the indefinable abyss through well trained thought. And this is the only way to conjecture the feature of the something hiding itself in the abyss.
※This abyss embodies all the state of souls and there is no use handling individual state. Therefor, in case of the representation during action, the representation rises from the abyss embodying the state at the action.
Γ. The World as Emotion
Well, from now on, we are to examine into the domains of existence together with the functions of the subject operating in each domain.
First of all, let us investigate the world as emotion.
The existence represented in this domain is characterized by the fact that it reflects the state of a soul, a master of the unifying subject as intellect. Thus the subject obtains the existence as emotion by unifying and getting conscious of the reflection internally. Because it is natural that the subject itself, as one part of a soul, embodies and comes to represent the state of the soul.
Therefore the existence represented as emotion will be recognized wherever the subject operates and the representation here implies the action by the soul itself to recognize its own state through its own intellect.
Thus such expressed state of emotions as "joy," "sorrow," "agony," "anger," and so on are recognized in this domain and obtain the position as existence.
These emotions project their own characterized colors on the existences represented in other domains, as we can understand from the following fact that even if two existences are represented as a same object in the intuitive world they take on different colors and meanings when we compare them in the state of "joy" with in that of "sorrow."
Thus the existence represented as emotion corresponds to the state of a soul, we must admit that we can for the first time realize the state of the whole universe by experiencing every kind of state a soul can have.
By the way, we can say that the characterized colors projected on the existences in other domains are held by the dark sea stretching in the abyss, and the unifying subject is compared to a solitary intellectual light floating and steering on the sea, and the existence as emotion is recognized when the subject unifies through its light what the dark sea does, that is rocking or drawing the subject itself.※ As resembles the following case; the subject standing at the helm and looking round the scenery spreading out before itself begins to pay attention to the state of the sea which makes it afloat and supports it.
As for the way to recognize the state, being different from that in the intuitive world where the subject unifies and represents the sensuous existence as an external object, the subject floating as one part of the sea becomes conscious of the condition of the sea internally, that is without separation between the subject and the object.
Lastly, the sea of emotion regarded as the state of a soul holds the original position compared with the existence represented in other domains. Therefore it sometimes happens that they are neglected or denied by a sudden change in the emotive movement of the sea.
※Various movements of the emotive sea come out in the process of its development. That is, the higher soul acts on the external intuitive world lit up by the intellect so that it can develop itself, and in that process it acts on selected objects showing its own desire with various whirlpools of emotion arising in our internal abyss. No one can, however, explain more than that. And the reason why the soul comes to have such emotions for those objects is still remains to be found in an intelligible world at the bottom of the abyss which stays in the backgroundof the internal phenomena.
Δ. The World as Intuition
Well, let us examine into other domains besides that of emotion.
First of all, we are to gather all the existences here that have a same essential aspect and call the world of them "intuiton". And then we are try to classify this world into three domains according to the functions of intellect; that is inception, perception, and intuition.
α. Sensation
Before investigating those domains of existence, however, we must at first study "sensation," nonmaterial stuff that the world as intuition is made from.
This sensation is totally different from those three formal domains of existence which are drawn according to the functions of the unifying subject in this intuitive world; and it becomes nonmaterial stuff and substantial basis of all the existences represented in those domains.
For that reason, we can gather all the existences that have sensation as its basis together into one, that is the intuitive world. Therefore we must not treat the sensation and the existences in the intuitive world in the same way.
As for the reason why this intuitive world comes to be provided, we can suppose that the intellectual functions are developed in order to help advanced souls to grow. With those functions, the subject for the first time unifies and represents objects in the external world, and on which it act in order to develop itself.
Then, the intuitive world lit up by the intellect will be compared to the following image: through a slightly opened window, a ray streams in the darkness making it possible to look at the outside. As is the same case with the intellect in this intuitive world, through which a new existence comes out in this external world.
Well, in this intuitive world the unifying subject pays attention to a stimulas and lights up an object in opposition to the subject. Thus the object comes to be represented as something external existent different from the subject.
Therefore, even if the object is taste or smell, the unifying subject becomes conscious of and comes to take it as something operating from outside. And in case of hearing, it represents an object as having direction, Then, as for touch and sight, it lights up an object of three dimentions in space.※(1)
Well, so long as the sensation remains unnoticed, we can say that it keeps staying on the surface of the dark sea with no distinction from emotion. But when the subject pays attention to the operation of the imaginary waves on the sea, that is stimulus, then it unifies and represents objective existences around itself.
In this case, though the rising waves are always trying to draw attention of the subject, they still have to remain unnoticed in the darkness when they fail to attract its attention because of their gentle operation. But when their operation is hard enough to cause a rapid change of stimulus, then the subject is to be dragged by the operation and forced to pay attention to it, lighting up an object with its intellectual light, then getting conscious of it. And when the functions develop in a higher stage, the subject comes to be able to pay attention to their natural and gentle operation which causes no change of stimulus.
By the way, the existences represented in this intuitive world, as well as in emotion, come out successively according to the form of the unification. Thus, if we consider the gap in time between what is representing and what is represented, we must admit that the operation of stimulus and the object lit up by the intellectual light are not the same and each has different nature.
That is because we incline to give those represented existences a retroactive position neglecting the gap in time, thus we tend to consider them to be the right objects operating on the subject from outside.
The operation, however, is never from outside but from the internal abyss, and toward which the subject casts its intellectual light and represents the intuitive existences in this external world. The existences represented in accordance with the operation of stimulus have the character of the "image" projected by the intellectual light.
For the reason noted above, the "organs of sense" or the "body" cannot be considered as what exists before sensation. We cannot take it a matter of course that the "organs of sense" or the "body" is something through which sensation comes out and what exists before it. In this sense, they are mere "images" of the intellectual light. ※(2)
In the phenomenal understanding, they are the representation about a soul by the intellect operating in this intuitive world. Thus we must admit that the intuitive representation will be regarded as shadows projected on the limited side of the intuitive world.
The existences, however, never ends up with mere illusion because of the character. If the "body" belongs to onself, the subject will embody various kinds of condition a soul happens to have internally and recognizes it as emotion. And in this experience, the supposed illusion comes to have a substantial meaning different from it. Even though the "body" dose not belong to oneself, we can imagine the state of the soul from the intuitive representation, the "body."
Therefore, if we do not like to define the "body" as mere illusion, it has to directry mean the internal abyss of oneself. In a phenomenal understanding, it has to mean the whole operation of a soul itself.
※(1)As noted above, the "form of space" derives from the relation between the subject and objects in the intuitive world, where they are to represented in the external world. In case we apply the form there, existences are made to fix on their each position in space and have the mutual determinative relation. But, when applied to the existences in the reflective world, they tend to lose their spatial positions and, even though they are what were perceived in the intuitive world, the mutual determinative relation of them cannot help becoming vague.
※(2)The represented "images" here comprise all the representation lit up by the intellect. Therefore those senses such as "pain," "cold," "smell,""bitter," and so on, are comprised in the category of the "image" so long asthey are perceived under the light of the intellect.
Although emotion needs the intellectual light in order to be represented and in that sense it may be comprised in the same category, judging from the character of origination the emotion implies, it must not be treated in the same way as the former. As for the former, the "images" are to be provided in order to help a soul todevelop in this external world.
β. Inception
Well, from this section, let us classify and examine the domains of existence according to the functions of intellect operating in this intuitive world.
Now, let us call the first domain of existence "inception," which is the most important and the basis of the intuitive world.
The existences in this domain are to be lit up when the subject casts its intellectual light toward stimulus. And through a cast of it into the darkness of the abyss, the existent world comes to be represented for the first time. ※(1)
Before then, the unifying subject does not have enough ability to represent "existence," only sleeping on the rocking waves of the emotional sea, but before long, it awakes from its deep sleep and, rubbing its sleepy eyelids, tries to examine its intellectual light on the functions in the initial existent world.
It, however, cannot ajust itself to the rising world for a while, and cannot represent new objects precisely. But, as time passes, although striking on various things in the sea, it comes to cast its intellectual light with an unsteady motion and light up objects.
At the same time, it applies the "form of space" provided by birth when represents the existences based on the sense of touch, and gradually grasps the mutual determinative relation in their spatial positions. Then, making what it learned there its own measure, it comes to apply it to the existences based on the sense of sight. Thus the well-trained intellect comes to be able to represent existences in space accurately and act on them in due time.
Well, the subject only operating in this domain as the first intellectual light of the universe is not developed enough to light up all the things floating on the dark sea with a cast of its intellectual light. Therefore it has to cast its dim light and represent inceptions successively so that it can draw a existent world. And the form of unification, that is sequentiality, is to be taken over in the reflective world as well. ※(2)
With this way, however, the existence rising from the dark abyss will soon disappear into it again when the subject neglects to go on paying attention to it, then a new existence will come out successively.
But, as described above, if the represented object disappears completely, the existent world will be always limited to that of only one inception on the unifying point separated from others. So, having pity on the fact, and trying to make the world more abundant, a Higher Being provides the subject with a soft and rewritable tablet on which it enables the subject to engrave and preserve represented objects, because it cannot keep all the representation existing under its intellectual light.
As the result of it, the once-represented objects come to rise again and again by some chance and assert their existence.※(3)
By the way, the degree of impress each existence has is not the same at all. It depends on the condition of desire a soul happens to have. The shallow-impressed mark on the tablet will soon disappear into the abyss of oblivion. On the contrary, the deep-impressed mark will not disappear throughout all its life.
With the help of high-developed intellect, however, in spite of the shallow impression, repeated impress will make the mark deep and continue to remain for a long time, as we are to study later.
※(1)In case the subject casts its intellectual light toward the stimulus but cannot light up and recognize the object corresponding to it, so long as the unifying operation is directed toward it, the subject will become conscious that at least a sense of something is coming out in this intuitive world, but if it fails to recognize the object, we cannot give it the position as "existence."
※(2)The sequentiality in the form of unification here means the intermittence made of inceptions. And by filling up the intermittence through reflection, we come to have the accustomed idea of "time" that has the content of inseparable continuity in it.
Well, when the subject represents two separable different inceptions successively, then, we can for the first time realize the origin of "time." Thus, as for the concept of "instant," we will be able to find out the gap between the two inceptions as the root of it.
With regard to the root of the form of unification, considering following fact noted below, we have to trace it back to as deep as a master of the unifying subject as intellect. That is, the operation of the unifying subject in all domains has its basis on the form, and it is different from the case in applying the form of space whose root is limited to the operation to represent a object by the subject. ( As a matter of course, the subject dose not need to apply the form of space in the world of emotion.)
※(3)The existences rising in that way differ in nature from those in the intuitive world. They are products emerging from marks on the tablet.
γ. Perception
Next, let us call the second domain of existence "perception," which is made of inceptions chained into one by the interest of a soul itself.
Well, if the ability of the subject does not develop beyond inception, with inceptions separated from and having no relation to one another, the existent world will emerge as mere repetition of between coming on and going out of the intellectual light.
In that world, only various sensational qualities come out and disappear one after another isolatedly in the domain of inception. Thus, a state of an object made of inceptions, a shape of it, a change of its quality, and its motion and rest are not to be represented yet.
In due time, however, as the intellect develops, it comes to chain inceptions into one in order to represent a state of perception. That is, the subject casts its light and represents inceptions successively, then engraves them on the soft tablet inside itself. And when they are chained to a certain extent, the impressed marks of them are preserved and come to rise again in this existent world as a perceptive image.
As will be noted only when the subject develops enough to engrave and memorize inceptions with ease.
By the way, we must admit that the real subject of the intellectual operation is nothing but a soul itself, and the represented inceptions are to be connected into a chain of them by the interest of the soul. Therefore, the chain has its basis on the condition of the soul itself as well as on its intellectual ability.
To be more concrete, when the soul happens to recognize an object of its own interest, then the following inceptions about the object are to be chained firmly. Thus, the state of perception about the object is drawn in this intuitive world. And as the strength of the chain depends on its interest, when it cannot find an interesting object, those represented inceptions show loose connection one another, and if the connection becomes slack to an extreme extent, all existences in this world, becoming rambling and faint images, will pass by almost unnoticed.
As is the same in emotion. The shade of emotion becomes thick or thin according as the strength of the chain changes, because both have their basis on the condition of the soul itself.
Thus, as noted above, the state of the chain is defined by each soul, and we have to wait for the reflective operation so that we can suppose causal relation in the chains.
With regard to impressed marks, as they each differs in depth of their impressions according to the interest of the soul, so the state of perception represented here will be almost determined by those deep-impressed inceptions.
Well, let us classify the state of perception into four genres according to its nature and study them next.
1. The perception about sensational qualities of a object
In this genre, the subject grasps a general image of it by representing various inceptions of sensational qualities and unifying them into a perception. All the sensation in touch, smell, taste, hearing, and sight becomes the nonmaterial stuff of its unification.
2. The perception about a shape of a object
In this genre, as the special case of (1), the subject applies the form of space especially to the inceptions based on touch and sight, and grasps a shape of a object by studying their each spatial position in their mutual determinative relation.
3. The perception about a change of sensational quality
Here, the subject comes to become conscious of a change in a fixed sensation of a object. Whether there is a change or not will be perceived when the subject compares the degree of the new rising inception based on the fixed sensation with that of the impressed one represented previous to it.
As for the way of consciousness, differing in nature from the function in the reflective world through which the subject judges whether they are same or not, here in this intuitive world the subject represents directly whether there is a change or not according to the stimulus. That is, it represents not only sensational qualities but also the degree of stimulus, and engraves them with their respective degrees on the internal tablet. ※(1)
By the way, the degree of rising sensation or impression on the tablet is differs in nature from that noted before in the domain of emotion, where the degree is determined by the interest of a soul itself. That is, we can say that the former is intellectual, and the latter is emotional.
Therefore, we can explain the following fact that even slight sensation causes an explosive shock for the soul itself, and even if the intellect represents strong sensation and engraves it, so long as it is not a matter of its interest, it will soon disappear into the abyss of oblivion.
Well, let us study following four cases next.
Firstly, in case the emerging inception has the same degree in a fixed sensation as the previous one preserved on the tablet, we come to perceive the object being changeless.
Secondly, in case the emerging one has the different degree from that of the previous one, we come to perceive it changing.
Thirdly, in case the emerging one has the different degree from that of two previous ones whose degrees of the sensation are impressed same, we come to perceive the transition from the state of changeless to that of changing.
On the contrary, in case the emerging one has the same degree as the latest inceptional impression which showed different degree from that of the previous one, then we come to perceive the transition from the state of changing to that of changeless.
The concept of "instant" pointed out in that transition has its origin in the gap between the rising inception and the previous one.※(2)
4. The perception about motion or rest of a object
In this genre, as the special case of (3), the subject applies the form of space to the same object and grasps whether there is a change or not in its spetial position instead of in its sensational quality. Therefore, the perception about the state of rest, that of motion, the transition from the state of rest to that of motion, and that from the state of motion to that of rest is the same with the case (3) in substance.
※(1)The grasp of the degree in the sensational quality is made possible under the intellectual light. Therefore, higher intellectual ability of representation and enough training in its daily life are necessary in order to perceive the object to a higher degree.
※(2)As long as the subject tries to go on representing the same object, it inclines to give impressed inceptions retroactive position and to consider the same object existing all the time. But, even if it tries to keep casting its intellectual light toward the object, it cannot keep the existence rising for a long time in this intuitive world. In due time, it turns into a vague state of sensation, which we cannot give a position of existence.
Therefore, in case we perceive the state of changeless as well as that of changing, the subject does not keep representing only one inception but represents plural inceptions successively. Especially in case of that of changing, the subject continues to unify the same object and represents inceptions, and when it grasps the difference in degree among successive inceptions, then it comes to perceive a change in the object.
δ. Intuition
Well, as for all the existences lit up in this existent world having their direct basis on sensation, as described above, we call the world of them "intuition."
Therefore, the domain of intuition includes those of inception and perception, and the represented existence here covers a state of intuition consisting of inceptions and perceptions. That is, the subject comes to look round complex objects in time and space and unifies them into a state of intuition.
In this case, the represented perceptions in the state of intuition will have less strong tie with one another than the inceptions in a state of perception. But, it sometimes happens that those perceptions come to have strong tie because of the strong interest of a soul itself.
By the way, considering this nature of the domain as intuition, we can say that all the existences represented with direct reality are nothing but inceptions, and the "perception" or the "intuition" is mere formal domain of existence consisting of the real existences, inceptions. Because they are set up according to the functions of intellect.
Ε. Remembrance
Well, as described above, we can say that because of the form of unification, the real existence lit up by the intellectual light is only that unified and recognized on its unifying point and once-represented existences, together with those yet to come out, are left in the dark abyss as impressed marks on the rewritable tablet.
The latter, however, indefinite, while the former, once they obtained the position of existence, have been preserved on it with their mutual determinative relation in "time" and "space." And then the impressed marks, receiving something of action, come to rise as image in the world of representation.
Thus, in case the image comes out spontaneously without the intellectual operation on the impressed marks, we can call it "remembrance," while in case the unifying subject casts its intellectual light on them and tries to call them up as the image in the reflective world, we can call it "recollection," as we are to study later.
By the way, when we have the image either as remembrance or as recollection, it appears as a shadow of once-represented object in the intuitive world. And the rising image will be classified into inceptive image, perceptive image, and intuitive image paralleling the domains of existence in it.
Well, as long as the functions of intellect are limited to that in intuition, the existence rising on the unifying point is either real one lit up in it or image coming out spontaneously. In such conditions, it is all the existent world and the subject is always chained to it.
Ζ. Transitional Stages to The World as Reflection
Now that we have examined the intuitive world, let us investigate into the third world of existence, the reflective world.
But, before its investigation, we need to have a look at the intellectual development next which provides us with it.
In this section, by making hypothesis on stages of intellectual development from its footprints left to us, we are to study the way how the subject develops its intellectual functions from the stage of remembrance to that of recollection which is the first stage in the reflective world.
By the way, as we observed at the previous section, the image as remembrance, together with real intuitive objects, rises spontaneously without the help of intellect.※(1)
Therefore, in this case, we need to search not intellectual functions but the internal abyss, that is soul itself, for the real subject that makes it rise. ※(2)
Now let us investigate the stages of intellectual development from remembrance to recollection here.
1. The First Stage
At this stage, while the subject represents an intuitive object, among once-impressed marks on the tablet the same as it has comes out as an image.
In this case, because of the relatively undeveloped intellect, we can say it is nothing but advice from the soul itself not to repeat the same danger or disaster as the subject had before.
Thus the remembrance at this stage will be limited to that from deeply impressed marks preserving its own great concern.
Well, the faculty of intellect here needs to develop as high as that of perception. That is, in order to recognize an existence as image, the subject must have the ability to become aware of the distinction between real intuitive objects and images as remembrace, as is made possible for the first time in the domain of perception where the subject can compare one existence with another in its unification.
In this case, while representing a chain of inceptions, the subject directly recognizes an image rising all of a sudden as something different from real intuitive objects.
But, if the faculty of intellect stops at the level of inception, the image of impression will come out not as remembrance but as illusion. ※(3)
That is because, coming out in isolation, each real inception has no connection with another, even if the inceptive image rises in the representation, it comes to be represented as the same existence with real inceptions without the recognition of what it is.
Therefore, for the reason above, even if the subject has ability to represent perception, in case the perceptive image fills in representation apart from the real intuitive world, then the notion of "remembrance" cannot be formed there.
Thus, at this stage, while the subject unifies and represents a state of inception or that of perception, the same impression as it has comes out taking the form of inceptive image or perceptive one.
2. The Second Stage
At this stage, while the subject represents a real object, among once-impressed marks not only the same as it has but also different one associated with it comes to rise as an image of impression.
The intellect here needs to develop into such a level as represents the whole world of intuition. This is because, at this stage, it has to treat relations among existences including inceptions and perceptions whose connections are not so strong as that of inceptions in a state of perception. ※(4)
Well, we can give an example here, that is "conditioned response."
In this reflex, while represents the real intuitive object, the subject will see an image of impression associated with it come out. That is because the impression was engraved before together with the same object as is being represented now having some relation to it.
For the reason above, we come to see a medium as sensational sign which causes the subject to represent an image of the same objects appear in this stage. But, as it is lacking in the ability to extract substantial elements from intuitive objects, we have to say that the sensational sign cannot be a concept, and it simply shows the associative relation with the same objects or images in the intuitive world.
3. The Third Stage
At this stage, while the subject represents a real intuitive object, images of various impressions not associated with it come out frequently. And it sometimes happens that the images fill up the whole representation. Thus, in this case, they cannot be defined as "remembrance." The subject enters into another world consisting of only images.
Such images as fill up its representation are probably those of objects of survival desire, for example, the objects for hunting such as animals, birds, fish, and so on, or those of sexual desire.
Thus, when those images that derive from desires, filling up its representation, come to neglect the objects in the intuitive world because of its highly developed intellect, then, with its faculty of representation heightening and its desires suppressed, the subject comes to be able to amuse itself in this imaginative world, leading to the dawn of Art.
For instance, most of us can recollect our own childhood when we indulged in fancies looking at changing clouds in blue sky, or imagined a illusional scene we had never seen before having inspiration from stains on a wall.
As desires of us are remain to be underdeveloped in childhood, the subject can fly up into a high sky and amuse itself in images gushing out abundantly from the internal abyss.
And we can guess that people in the Old Stone Age came to have such a state of intellect, as is proved by mural paintings on rocks and in caves which are said to be remains of them.
Adult as they might be with strong desires, they could fly up into a creative world with a mirror of sensibility brought by suppressing their desires. It is because their desires were such innocent that they covered only essential needs for the time being and did not cover unnecessaries or things in the future.
Probably, stains and patterns in caves caused them to remember groups of familiar animals. Seeing those paintings, we are caught in pure and earnest eyes of them who are impelled to express those images overflowing in its representation.
As we see, the overflow like gushing out from fountain is the only index showing its own artistic nature. And in this instance, because those paintings reflect their desires suppressed but about to come forth with transparency, as stems from its highly developed state of intellect, they attracts us by its magical power.
By the way, for preparing the intellectual function as recollection, the subject does not necessarily need such a state of intellect. It will be enough for the intellect to develop into such a level as allows images not associated with the real object lit up in intuition come out frequently.
With that level, the subject comes to be provided with the function of recollection that enable it to operate on once-impressed marks on the internal tablet and make them rise in image form.
※(1) The subject can recognize the existence rising into its representation, even though it is not a product of its operation.
※(2) As the unifying subject as intellect is a part of the whole operation of soul itself, so we cannot treat it as separated operation from soul itself. It is provided as a tool for the sake of soul.
※(3) What is called "illusion" comes to be represented when the subject regards an image as the same existence as real intuitive objects by failing to distinguish between the two. In this case, the image rises as something different from remembrance with the help of soul itself.
※(4) At this stage, in case the real intuitive objects or the images associated with them are real inceptions or inceptive images, the connection among those inceptive existences will be made possible when the subject obtains ability to represent the whole intuitive world. It is because those inceptive existences appear independently in comparison with the connection ofthem in a state of perception.
Η. The World as Reflection
Well, we are to study the third world of existence here, the reflective world.
The existence represented in this world is only image, as is the same with "remembrance," "illusion," and "dream." But the image in this reflective world can be differentiated from them on the ground that it is a product of the reflective function.
For the reason above, eapecially in this world, we are required to investigate on what function does the image have its basis. Taking the image as a footprint of a function, we have to investigate the intellectual functions and define them as clearly as possible here.
α. Recollection
Well, now, let us examine the first function in this reflective world, that is recollection.
With this function, the subject comes to operate on once-impressed marks and make them emerge in image form, which, as we know, is different from that as remembrance because of its reflective function.
The necessity of the function will be explained that the subject can make images as recollection rise voluntarily with it, while the soul itself has to make them rise spontanously before that.
In an early stage of this function, it might be a mere assistant helping those images that are about to emerge spontanously to rise. But, as it develops its faculty, it comes to be able to operate on such impressed marks as cannot emerge on the surface spontanously and to make them appear as some image in its representation.
Furthermore, when such a medium as "sensational sign" or "word" comes to be used, the range of recollection covers even the slightly impressed marks, on which the subject operates without the help of intuition and succeeds in making them emerge. Those images, however, are indistinct because of their weak impressions and sometimes it cannot make them emerge in its recollection.
By the way, it is certain that the image and the real intuitive object are different in nature, however, we must admit that once those images stemming from the same impressed mark come out in accordance with the form of its unification, that of time, they are somewhat different as well.
That is because the impressed marks themselves are not unchangeable, always fading and changing by receiving new impressions on the same tablet. And moreover, the subject of the function, or rather the state of soul itself, is in the stream of change.
Concerning about the forms of time and space, in this function of recollection, all images come out successively according to the form of its unification, and some are represented in space. But we must pay attention to the following fact that those images represented with sequentiality does not always have the same order that was given in intuition, and that, even though represented in space, they are different from the real intuitive existences because they tend to move like a mass of cloud compared with the intuitive ones, which are fixated on their positions having their basis on sensation.
Now, let us examine into the details especially about the former next.
As we studied before, all the impressed marks of once-represented objects in intuition preserve the mutual determinative relation in their sequential appearance according to the form of its unification.
In this function of recollection, however, those preserved marks in the darkness may come out as images in different order from that in intuition according to the function in reflection.
In this case, as those images represented successively by the function preserve behind them the mutual determinative relation in intuition, we come to be able to notice how the new mutual determinative relation of them differs from that of intuitive objects. Therefore, in this recollection, we can arbitrary make them emerge in the reverse order compared with that engraved in intuition.
β. Imagination
Well, when the faculty of representation develops so high that the function of recollection comes to work well and make dim impressed marks come out, then it enables the subject to compound them freely and give rise to a different image from that of recollection which is a reproduction faithful to those marks.
In the beginning, when the function of recollection tries to draw up forcibly the impressed marks hidden deeply in the darkness, the function of compound operates as an assistant that complements an unclear image.
But as it develops its intellectual ability, without keeping the recollection as it is, it comes to compound several impressed marks and make a new image totally different from that of recollection.
Therefore, the function of compound stands on the same line with that of recollection as a developed phenomenon of it. And those images through this function must have their basis on the once-impressed marks in intuition, being compounded of different parts from various impressed marks.
Thus, the images which we have never experienced in the real intuitive world fill up its representation through the function, we can call both the function and the image "imagination"
(Appendix). Dream
In contrast with imagination, when the compounded images come out and fill up its representation not through the reflective function but through soul itself, we call them "Dream."
Therefore, we can say that "dream" is the existence not belonging to the reflective world but standing on the same line with remembrance.
When the function of compound ceases working and the images overflow its representation like dream, then the function returns to that of recollection, only changing the direction of the stream.
Before long, those represented worlds meltiong into the twilight, the subject shifts its role from active one where it operates to represent worlds to passive one, it becomes an onlooker with its intellectual light slightly lightening the stage of dream manipulated by the soul itself.
Therefore, we can say that the soul shows itself in dream. But even though we can say so, as long as those represented images themselves are figurative, we have to surmise the soul itself and its operations from the images.
By the way, though we have supposed something substantial staying in each internal abyss to be soul, it is only a way of definition. we can make another way. But the something substantial is in it without being bound to those definitions. ※(1)
Well, then, let us have a look at the operations of the subject as the intellectual part of the something itself.
The subject lights up real intuitive objects based on sensation, and in the reflective world, it makes various kinds of images come out.
Making a comparison between the two world, the intellectual light is much stronger in intuition than in reflection. Thus, while it represents intuitive objects, images does not appear so often. That is, the intellectual light in intuition is so strong that those images like stars which can be seen in night are hidden behind the sensuous world. ※(2)
When, however, it is waking but staying away from the intuitive world, then those various kinds of images hidden behind it come to appear and fill up its representation. In case we are making deep meditation in such a condition, the subject has to image and feel its way on the dark horizon with its dim intellectual light on.
In such meditation, even a falling sound of a needle drags it out of the meditation and smashes its imaginative representation by casting the strong light made of the sensous stimulus. And it will take a proper interval for it to return to the reflective world and become accustomed to the dim light.
When it is in the state of tranquility before sleep, the functions in both intuition and reflection decline to an extreme extent, and the both intuitive world and reflective one come to mix with in confusion the overflowing fanciful images.
When the subject stops unifying the worlds as representation or coducting the direction of them by its own intellectual functions, the both worlds melting into the fanciful images, then "dream" comes to appear on the stage.
In dreams, without doing anything but light up the stage of its representation by its dim intellectual light, the subject alone watches the dance of images on the stage from a reserved seat in a theatre, feeling now joyous, now depressed.
When a deep sleep falls on it, with its light being blown out and the curtain of the stage being droped at last, it gets into the darkness of its own abyss in order to seek after a sound sleep and floats in it while taking a rest. It dose not operate on or look on anything.
By the way, while waking, the soul develops itself changing its states with the help of its representation obtained either in intuition or in reflection. But, in dreams, images dose not appear as external occasions for its development, they are to emerge in order to convey a state of soul itself, or rather what the life itself is.
Therefore, we can trace them back to several different levels of sea in each internal abyss, that is, from the surface of waves to the bottom of the sea. And as is the rare case with them, they can be traced back to as deep as beyond the soul, the individual frame, that is, to the whole life itself in the universe. That will be made possible only when the state of a soul with a high faculty of representation turns into that of a mirror, helping it to fly as far as beyond the soul. In such conditions, the subject can see in dreams what is operating on it from beyond the personal frame.
But, as long as it is a representation in dreams, there must be something unifying behind it. Thus, even if the subject can see the whole universe in dreams according to the operations from the universal substance, however, it can neither get into the transcendental area of something substantial that is ever unifying the universe and never unified itself, nor see the figure of it.
And in case the subject is taking a rest in its abyss with its intellectual light off, it dose not mean that it is free from the transcendental substance. It is taking a rest floating in "MAYA," the marvelous power which animates the whole universe. Although the subject is receiving various kinds of operations in it, it fails to represent what it receives simply because it keeps its light off.
Before long, when its intellectual light is turned on again, it dreams, and when it begins to operate, the real world of intuition is lit up, and then the reflective world comes to appear in its representation.
※(1) In a phenomenal understanding about the metaphysical field of the internal abyss, we can suppose firstly a soul as an individual frame, secondly, the "MAYA," the marvelous power which unifies the whole universe, then lastly, the single Supreme Being that is above all souls in the universe and controls the "MAYA."
※(2) When we look up at stars at midnight, it is never unreasonable that unlimited stars seem to be speaking to us. It is because we have unlimited "stars" in each internal abyss, and they are always whispering us in order to convey something.
γ. Thinking without the Help of Words ( 1. The Causal Relation ) ※(1)
Well, when the function of recollection develops so high that it can make impressed marks preserved in the darkness appear as images with ease, a state of question comes out for the first time. Thus, with its question in mind, the subject comes to develop the function of thinking. That is, with this function, it tries to combine images derived from recollection into a cause and effect relation which has its own basis on the mutual determinative relation in time.
By the way, only observing the fact that images come out successively, we cannot define whether they appear as "remembrance" or "recollection" or "imagination" or "dream" or "thinking." Therefore, in this section, we have to investigate the function of thinking behind the fact.
When the subject is chained to the intuitive world without the faculty of reflection, it sometimes happens that it shows a state of question concerning qualities or motion and rest of a represented object. It, however, does not mean the subject can go into thinking, only showing its curiosity or embarrassment it is to have when pressed for an action as to how it copes with them in an immediate intuitive apprehension.
But, with the state of question in mind, when the subject, taking what is represented in intuition as effect, comes to search images drawn up through the function of recollection for the cause, it comes to be provided with the function of thinking for the first time. That is, analyzing those images, it comes to be able to make a judgement for combining them into a cause and effect relation.
When the function of thinking develops high enough to stand on its own legs, taking not only real intuitive objects but also images based on recollection as effect, it comes to be able to search the same images for the cause. Before long, besides the way to search for cause from effect, taking what is represented as cause, it comes to be able to search images for the effect.
In this way, while it is chained to the intuitive world, it can do nothing but observing objects carefully in its form of unification. But once it is provided with the function of thinking, it comes to be able to connect existences rising in intuition one another into a chain of cause and effect through it.
Thus, we have to say that the law of causality is not a form prior to all experiece but a pattern of thinking, a way of connecting objects in a reflective judgement. ※(2)
Therefore, while the connection of inceptions or perceptions for intuitive representation is performed under the interest of soul itself, in physical phenomena through reflection, objects are to be connected under the law of causality. And we can find out as follows. That is, as the state of the connection in intuition is defined by soul, so the causal relation in physical phenomena is determined by the same power with soul, the "MAYA" which unifies the whole universe.
The cause or the effect looked for as an answer of a question is to come out as an object in past time or in future, though it is being represented on the unifying point.
As the objects of thinking here are real intuitive objects and images based on impressed marks, the subject can exercise the function in the way of not conceptualization but combining them into the causal relation. Moreover, it can deal with general physical phenomena, the universe. And as the result of the question about the cause of it, it comes to think about another world existing behind the phenomenal one.
Probably, the most significant question here is as follows; "Why I was born in this world, and why I am mortal." And the question of "From where and how Iwas born. Where and how I am to go when I die." will be made on the same line. Then, those questions are directed to the sole question, "Why I exist."
So long as the subject, however, keeps paying attention to the physical phenomena, even though it tries to draw an answer from them by means of tracing its causal relation in either the direction from cause to cause or that from effect to effect, it has to end up with resigning the endless search halfway.
And even though we suppose another world as the result of pursuing the cause of this world, we cannot make positive definition concerning the intangible world. Moreover, as it is regarded as the cause of this world staying on the same extended line with it, it tends to remain an abstract phenomenon in our mind which controls this world from transcendental place.
But, it is because we cannot realize the following fact yet; that is, the physical phenomena themselves are what are represented in our representation and something substantial which unifies them is staying in our each own internal abyss.
(Even though we become conscious of what is noted above through the phenomenal understanding about soul, and even though the consciousness corresponds to the substance itself, it still remains a "existence" in our representation.)
Well, in this thinking through the causality, questions are made not for systematized knowledge, as we are to study next, but for making our immediate intuitive apprehension right in order to cope with difficulties in this world.
※(1) "Thinking" can be defined as combination of objects through judgement. And in this case, the objects include real intuitive existences, images, and concepts.
There are two ways of the combination as follows; that is, that of connecting objects into the causal relation according to the mutual determinative relation in time, the other is that of connecting objects into conceptualization through the judgement of identity.
※(2) Since the causality is a way of thinking in the reflective world, the subject free from the form of unification applied in intuition can make several causal relations on the same event through the analysis of it from different angles.
δ. Thinking without the Help of Words ( 2. Conceptualization )
Let us examine the other way of thinking here.
Well, in case of conceptualization, the thinking operates and classifies objects into either those in the relation of coordination or those in that of subsumption, and they are considered to be out of the mutual determinative relation in time.
Firstly, toward the generalization, it comes to build a whole system of concept about physical phenomena. In case of finding out that of coordination, it works as the judgement of identity, and in case of that of subsumption, it works as that of abstraction.
Secondly, toward the specification, it is to reveal formal grounds which leave their footprints in the representation. In this case, in order to abstract the forms for representation, we are to investigate the "Noesis," the unifying intellectual operation, by applying the judgement of identity to the "Noema," what are represented as physical phenomena.
1. Generalization
Let us have a look at this generalization first.
Well, while setting up the causality is internal thinking itself, we have to pay attention that finding out the relation of coordination or that of subsumption has its own direct purpose to convey each own intention. That is, language and this generalization come to have close relation so that we human beings, forming a well organized society, can use the language for the mutual communication.
In this case, analyzing and abstracting the characters or the essence of an object which we want to transmit to our companions, and then, making them the contents of a concept, we come to invent a sensational sign which points to the concept. That is the beginning of the word.
This generalization begins with finding out in the universe two individuals which have the same character from a point of view. In this case, the grasp of identity has to be derived not from remembrance showing its resemblance spontaneously, but from the thinking through which characters in objects are compared with one another.
Those individuals represented as the objects of the judgement cover both real intuitive ones and images of recollection. In this judgement of identity, analyzing the objects represented as either of them, the subject judges from what angle they are the same or not concerning their sensational qualities or mutual determinative relations in time and space.
That is, it compares individual objects with one another first and abstracts the same elements from them, and discarding unessentials through applying the abstraction several times, it boils down essentials. Thus, finally it comes to abstract them as the contents of a concept. In this way, it comes to make a concept determined by the common essentials of individuals.
In the same way, it compares subordinate concepts with one another in the next stage. Abstracting the same and essential elements of them through the judgement of identity, it makes a superordinate concept. And in due time, it finally leads to the highest one which includes all physical phenomena.
For the reason above, even though we can say so, we must admit that the highest concept is abstracted to an extreme extent and never hold the contents of subtle sensational qualities each real object has. It is because those subtle differences among objects are to be discarded as unessentials in the process of this conceptualization of individuals.
By the way, comparing the judgement among concepts with that among individuals, we can see it is not enough to make individuals the objects of that among concepts because they are subsumed by concepts and not equal to them. Therefore, at this level, the subject needs the faculty of abstract thinking to understand the exact contents each concept has. ※(1)
Those concrete images of individuals, however, play an important role in helping the subject to combine concepts, though they are not concepts themselves.
In this abstract domain, the high reflective ability becomes indispensable in order to make an appropriate judgement about what element to abstract as essential one.
Well, let us have a look at the general system of concept based on the intuitive world.※(2)
First of all, in the domain of real inceptive existence, a concept of represented sensational quality, for example, "red" can cover unlimited individuals with different degrees of clearness and brightness. It is because those subtle elements which differentiate individuals are to be discarded in the proceess of making the concept. Thus, abstracting the same essentials, the subject comes to make the concept "red" which includes all individuals sharing them.
In the next stage, the subordinate concept "red" is to be compared with "blue," "yellow," and so on. Discarding unessentials and abstracting higher essentials which are common to those subordinate concepts, the subject comes to make the superordinate concept "color," and which is to be expressed "sight" when based on the form of space.
As is the same in the following.
Those subordinate concepts such as "pain," "soft," "hot," and so on, are included in the superordinate concept "touch." In the same way, those concepts characterized by their each smell are included in that of "smell." Then, "sweet," "bitter," "sour," and so on, are included in that of "taste." And those characterized by their each sound are included in that of "hearing."
In the next stage, those five concepts are to be subsumed into that of "sensation."
Secondly, those concepts characterized by their factor of distance such as "deep," "high," and so on in the domain of inceptive existence, and those characterized by their figurative factors such as "triangle," "square," and so on in the domain of perceptive existence, are both included in that of "space."
Those concepts characterized by the factor of the mutual determinative relation in their sequential appearances such as "present" to which what is becoming on the unifying point belongs, "past" to which what became belongs, and "future" to which what will become belongs, are included in that of "time."
Those concepts characterized by the times of the sequential appearances such as "one," "two," "three," and so on, are included in that of "natural number."
In the same way, those concepts characterized by the change of their sensational qualities or their each own motion and rest in the domain of perceptive existence are included in that of "becoming."
Those characterized by their each total state are included in those of "mineral," "plant," "animal," and "human beings." And they are finally subsumed into that of "soul."
In the domain of intuition, those combinations of concept characterized by the relation brought through the comparison between two objects such as "equal" or "unequal," "large" or "small," "like" or "unlike," and so on, are included in that "same" or "different." ※(3)
Those concepts characterized by the total state of intuition comprising of numerous perceptions are included in those of "society," "nature," and so on. And they are finally subsumed into that of "universe."
When the generalization is carried out to such a extent, then, as is noted before, the concept of "Supreme Being" without active definition is to be introduced as the cause of this physical phenomenon, "universe," on the same line with it.
At the same time, the concept "MAYA," the marvelous power which connects both the concepts into the causal relation, will be introduced as well.
※(1) Even in the abstract thinking, the fundamental stuff for the thinking is either real intuitive objects or those images. The more we have those individuals, the more the abstract thinking is to be enriched with them.
※(2) Of course, the world as "Emotion" can be conceptualized and generalized in the different domain from that as "Intuition."
※(3) Those concepts are introduced when the judgement of identity is applied in the domain of intuition. For example, when objects are compared with one another in terms of the degree of sensation, or the length of time, or the area of space, and so on, then the judgement whether they are equal or not is to be made. This is because the subject itself engraves standards for those comparison. Those below or above the standards are judged to be "unequal" because they are "different" from them. And those corresponding to the standards are judged to be equal because they are the "same" with them.
Well, when the standards engraved by its own intellect are replaced with something which shows a permanent periodic phenomenon, and visualized and made numerable, then the numerical value of the measurement make the judgement quite accurate.
2. Specification
Well, as we have studied above, the reflective world treated thus far by the thinking either on the causality or on the general system of concept is what is represented as physical phenomenon, the "Noema." And our investigation toward the unifying operation, the "Noesis," remains to be carried out.
Now, in this section, let us shift our investigation from the "Noema" to the "Noesis," and try to extract the forms for the representation here.
In this extraction, a state of question becomes a clue to the initiation of the function, as is the same with the thinking through the causality but different from the abstraction in the generalization. And while the subject handles physical phenomena in finding out causal relations, in this specification, its investigation is to be directed to its own intellectual operations. Thus, distinguishing the thinking toward the "Noesis" from that in causal relations, we have to choose the words for them properly. That is, we need to use the word "ground" instead of "cause" here.
As is noted before, the ever unifying subject is never unified and represented at the same time on its unifying point. Therefore it has to handle what are represented as its own footprints afterward in order to suppose its own functions.
Thus, in this specification, we have to examine those footprints carefully and extract the common essentials from them by applying the judgement of identity.
(1). The forms in intuition
Now, as the occasion of our investigation, such a question as "Why this world keep becoming" may be put.
Thus, firstly, looking for the the ground toward the "Noesis," we can extract the common essential element as the sequentiality.
That is, from the fact that all the existences in the representation come out not at the same time but successively, we can suppose the form which guarantees it. And, as is noted before, we can call it "the form of unification" because it is the form not for representation but of its operation itself. Through it the concept of "time" comes to appear for the first time in the generalization.
Next, in the sense of touch and that of sight, we can extract the common essential element as the spatial one.
That is, from the fact that all the existences based on both the senses are represented in three dimensions, we can suppose the subjective form of the intellect for representation, "the form of space." Then, investigating the deeper ground, we can understand that it derives from the relation between the subject and objects in the intuitive world. And, as is noted before, real intuitive existences are made to fix on their each position through the form, but in case of those in reflective world, even though it is applied to them, they tend to lose their each own spatial position.
Thus, "the becoming of this world" is to be represented through those two forms. In other words, it is nothing but the expression of the two forms which is prior to all experience.
Therefore, though the real world we are accustomed to is the world as representation, we must admit that the way of its existence, that is the formal frame of this world, is determined by those two forms. But what kinds of substantial contents this frame is to be filled with remains to be determined by the substantial power operating from the far deeper ground than the forms.
(2). The forms in thinking
let us have a look at the forms for thinking here.
We may come to have the question "why objects are connected in thinking." Then, trying to look for the answer, we may begin to investigate how they are connected.
We will find out that in all thinking either on the causality or on the system of concept we can extract the common essentials for completing the thinking as follows; that is, those keeping their each own identity, being fixed on the same angle in the same sphere, are to be combined without contradictions in the alternative way such as A or non-A. ※
Therefore, we can suppose the forms for completing the thinking in the"Noesis." And we may classify them into four principles, that is, the principle of identity, that of fixation, that of contradiction, and that of excluded middle.
For example, in case of connecting two objects into a cause and effect relation, firstly confirming each identity of both objects represented as staying in this becoming world, and fixing them in each determined time and place, then connecting them without contradictions in an alternative manner, we can for the first time complete the thinking on the causal relation.
In case of setting up the relation of coordination or that of subsumption between objects in its generalization, confirming each identity of the objects as either individual or concept which are considered to be not in time, and fixing them on each determined angle and sphere in the general system of concept, then we are to complete the connection in the same way as is studied above.
By the way, the logical form is out of the question in this thinking without the help of language. Only in case of the thinking through words, it will be treated when the concepts of them stay in the general system of concept built in the process of its generalization.
It is because the form is nothing but the different expression of the system, and through the use of the words, the formal positions of their concepts come to be asked for in this formal logic for the first time.
※ In case the alterntives are A and non-A, we have the possibility to go on judging with endless times from the latter. But, once one of two predicates either A or non-A is determined, the thinking itself is to be completed.
That is, in case non-A is determined as B, then the alternative ends. But if non-A includes B and C, firstly the alternatives are A and non-A, and in case of non-A, secondly the alternatives become B and C. In this way, if non-A includes unlimited predicates, then it is possible for us to go on having the alternative endlessly. And in that case, the thinking itself will go on being completed each time.
(Appendix). Operation in the "Noesis"
Now, as we have investigated the forms of the intellectual functions, it may be due order to treat the functions themselves this time. In this book, however, they have been treated already for its systemic convenience. Therefore, they are not to be treated again here.
As we have studied before, those functions are still in the hypothetical stage, and another hypothesis will be possible. It is because those hypothesized in the "Noesis" are nothing but existences in the representation, that is internal phenomena, which can be regarded as the supposition about the internal abyss itself.
Considering their correspondence to physical phenomena, we can suppose individual souls behind the internal phenomena, and in deeper place, the "MAYA" operating on them from beyond the individuals, then at the bottom of the abyss, the "Supreme Being" which can be considered something substantial unifying all the universe through the "MAYA."
Thus, even though we can set forth hypotheses about what is operating in the "Noesis," we have to admit that the supposition there leaves traces of the phenomenal understanding on this world characterized by its causality, and that the nature of the understanding as supposition about the abyss itself never become different compared with others.
Considering that the cause in the "Noema" has to be replaced by the ground when we are to follow the "Noesis," we have to admit the evident fact that all the existences unified and represented on the unifying point have their own basis on the ever unifying substance in the "Noesis."
Staying in the dark abyss, it represents the world of existence on its unifying point. And, while itself is chained to it with its adherence, the represented world of existence appears to it everything, and the very unifying subject itself that represents this world appears to itself nothing without having positive determination in the dark abyss.
In due course, however, being set free from this world, and looking back to itself in the perfect vacuity, that is "NIRVANA," it will come to realize for the first time that what appeared nothing is everything, and, on the contrary, what appeared everything is nothing.
For that kind of realization, however, another way of knowledge totally different from that of reflection is to be needed, because itself cannot help being defined as something appearing nothing in the reflection.
ε. The Beginning of Words and Thinking Through Them
When a sensational sign signifying an individual or a concept comes to be used for mutual communication with one another, the concept of "word" begins to make an appearance on its stage. ※(1)
Now, let us have a look at the beginning of words here firstly. And in the next place we are to study the contents and the usage of words, then, lastly, the way of thinking through them.
By the way, as is noted before, in the process of connecting objects as either individual or concept through thinking, the sensational sign does not necessarily play an indispensable role in it. Because thinking itself can be formed without it.
The function of word enables us to accumulate experience and recollect what we each experienced, then to make a great progress toward much higher understanding on things. But, without profound thinking keeping clear definitions of words, the knowledge accumulated and recollected there will turn out to be mere sensational signs with vacant contents.
Though the sensational sign of word itself is different from its contents,we sometimes use it without confirming its own contents because we incline to take it as the contents itself. Thus, we are led to consider itself to have its own meaning without fail. ※(2)
Therefore, in case we use words, we are required to grasp the contents of them as clearly as possible so that we can heighten our own systematical understanding.
By the way, when we use words to communicate with one another, even the same contents as either individual or concept are sure to be transmitted in different forms of image among senders and receivers.
That is, in case of concept, among numerous individuals subsumed by the concept, each of them can represent only the images which each has preserved on its internal tablet. And in case of individual which is common to them, even the same image comes to be represented with subtle differences among senders and receivers according to their different conditions in each soul.
※(1) It may be necessary to draw a line between the sensational sign with its concept and that with its individual. In this study, we are to use the same word, "word," in both cases.
※(2) As long as a concept is formed, it is supposed to have some contents. And, considering the process of its formation, it is apparent that there is not a concept without its contents. The idea of "concept with vacant contents" can be conceived only when the sensational sign is considered concept itself.
1. Occurrence of Words
Well, let us look at how words happen to make appearances on their stages.
We can recognize the beginning of a word when the subject uses a sensational sign for indicating an object. In this case, analyzing the object and abstracting the essentials, the subject tries to transmit them to others by gesture or drawings. That is, not what it is but its main characters are to be handled in this transmission.
Thus, expressing and stressing its main characters by gesture or drawings, when the subject tries to give an image of the object to others, the first form of words begin to appear in its representation.
As for receivers, they try to grasp what is expressed there through each own images. And when the images of them become the same as that of the sender in those essentials, then, the transmission is to be completed.
Thus, thinking out a more convenient medium of communication compared with gesture and drawings, human beings come to use ideograms. Then, they develops into pictographs and hieroglyphs afterward.
By the way, if we are allowed to use only sensational signs based on the sense of sight, we will not be nimble in communicating with one another. Thus, we human beings, keeping step with the former, have developed sensational signs based on the sense of hearing as well. It is because the sense of hearing, as well as that of sight, is intelligent enough to discriminate minute variations of sound, and the communication through it is made quite easily and quickly.
In the beginning, the sensational signs based on the sense of hearing remain mere sounds, and letters representing their each pronunciation yet remain to be invented. In this case, sounds of a monosyllable or a few syllables characterized by their each tone may come to signify some important objects.
Probably, those sounds which come to have close relation to the intuitive objects are to be developed as high as the sensational signs pointing to them.
For examples, on one occasion, it may happen that several persons observe an intuitive object, and one of them utters a sound with astonishment. Then, the sound may become a vocal word whose characteristic contents are abstracted in its observation. And it includes all individuals which have the common essentials.
On another occasion, it may happen that a person tries to transmit an image of an object he experienced to others by gesture. Then, a meaningless sound uttered by some chance may become a vocal word including all individuals which have the common essentials.
On another occasion, it may happen that the object of observation itself makes sounds. In this case, the same sound itself may become a vocal word.
Thus, those sounds functioning as words are to be written down afterward by the letters representing their each pronunciation, that is phonograms. And as enables human beings to record experiences and thoughts, and to transmit them to people in wider space and time.
Well, although those pictographs and hieroglyphs originate from ideograms, they may come to represent their each pronunciation afterward in order to take full advantage of the merits in vocal communication. Therefore, as long as there is no interferences with their daily life, whether a word originates in the sense of sight or in that of hearing in the beginning does not matter so much.
2. Contents of Words and Their Usage
Now, we are to look at what words signify here.
But, in case of those words which signify concepts as we have studied before, we have only to find out concepts corresponding to the words respectively. And in case of those indicate individuals, the very intuitive state of an individual itself becomes the contents of a word. Therefore, those words considered to hold subtle elements which are to be discarded in generalization.
Well, let us examine parts of speech next according to the domains each word stems from.
First of all, in case those words signify a static state of an object or its shape in both inceptive and perceptive domains, they take the form of noun. And those signifying a change of a sensational quality or the motion and rest of an object in the perceptive domain take the form of verb.
In the intuitive stage, a state of comparison among objects as well as that of an object itself becomes contents of a word, and it takes the form of noun too.
With both parts of speech working as main frames, they inflect and other parts of speech come to be formed from them according to a grammatical structure operating when words are connected.
As for moods, we can classify them into three categories. That is, the indicative mood; where objects in the intuitive world are described as they are without emotional elements or reflection. Then, the optative mood and the imperative mood; where things are described with emotion. Lastly, the subjunctive mood and the conditional mood; where things are described with reflection.
3. Thinking Through Words
Here, we are to examine the way of thinking through words, that is the combination of contents indicated by words. As is the same case as we have studied in the thinking without the help of language.
In this case, however, contrary to the thinking noted before, we have to carefully investigate the contents of presented words, then to combine those contents under sufficient grounds. Those grounds for knowing are as follows.
(1). The forms in thinking through which the combination is formed are to be counted.
(2). Then, as other grounds for defining the contents of words correctly and heightening the combination with concrete contents, the forms in intuition are to be counted first.
The natures of both the form of unification and the form of space make a priori knowledge possible. That is, in the former, the nature is expressed as the mutual determinative relation in the sequential appearances of existences, and in the latter, it is expressed as the mutual determinative relation in their spatial positions.
Next, experience is to be counted. all existences in the representation full up the contents of words with the concrete and make their combination fruitful.
Lastly, though it is negative, the indefinable area is to be counted as one of the grounds. Because, the awareness of the area make it possible for us to determine the other area where we can combine words positively for knowledge with the contents of words being clearly defined.
(3). In case the combination of concepts is formed by the thinking through words, the logical form is to be counted besides those grounds noted above.
That is, this form enables us to find out a new combination of concepts different from a presented one through the formal logic, in other words, the formal frames of coordination and subsumption which the general system of concept has.
The knowledge introduced here, however, does not have anything new in its substance. Because, it is nothing but another expression obtained from the presented one through the logical system of concept.
Now, the knowledge, the combination of words here, is to be formed through such substancial and formal grounds as are noted at (2) and (3) with the forms in thinking being applied.
In this case, even one of the forms in thinking fails to be satisfied,then the combination of words cannot be formed correctly.
Well, then, let us examine it giving an example, "If the existences are multiple, they cannot help being at the same time alike and unlike."
In this example sentence, the combination of words is not formed correctly because all the forms are not satisfied. Now, let us investigate the example for further details by applying the following two principles of conditioning.
As for the principle of identity, we have to confirm the concept of the subject and that of the predicate. That is, the concept of the subject here will vary according as whether it is all the existences in the representation or the existences represented in limited domains. On the other hand, the concept of the predicate, "alike and unlike," can be fixed and defined as a state of comparison with one another.
Therefore, in the principle of identity here, without the definition of that of the subject, the combination cannot be formed.
As for the principle of fixation, as long as the concept of the subject or the predicate is not fixed on the same angle in the same sphere, the combination still remains unformed.
Incidentally, in case we have two contradictory predicates according to different angles or spheres, it does not mean the failing to complete the thinking but means that two separate combinations of the concepts are formed according to each different angle or sphere.
Provided that the concept of the subject here is fixed as all the existences in the representation, then, we are to clear the principle of fixation next.
As long as from which angle or sphere the combination is made is not decided, the thinking remains incomplete. That is, as long as we do not determine whether we look at the existences individually in the represented world, "Noema," or we look at them as the shadows projected on the representation from the "Noesis," the combinations still remain unformed. But, once the principle of fixation is satisfied by fixing the angles, they are to be formed through the other principles, both the principle of contradiction and that of excluded middle.
That is, if we look at all the existences individually in the "Noema," they are unlike. But, if we look at them as shadows from the "Noesis," they are alike.
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